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...In Persia first arises that light which shines itself and illuminates what is around... The principle of development begins with the history of Persia; this constitutes therefore the begining of history. |
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Iran in the late third millennium BC During the third and the early years of second millennium BC, the plateau of Iran was divided into some cultural regions quite distinct from each other. Gorgan's culture included the entire region in the east of the Caspian Sea. Also the culture of Gian III-IV and Godin IV prevailed in the east of Lurestan. Yanic's culture prevailed in an area extending from the east Azarbaijan to the central parts of Iran. In south, southeast, and east, three different cultures, all having painted ceramics, prevailed in Fars, Kerman and Sistan. Ilamites We do not know much about the beginning and foundation of state and the early days of history in Ilam. The earliest record of the name Ilam belongs to Sumerian king's name list prepared in around 2100 BC. According to this name list a governor from Kish captured Ilam in about 2600BC. Based on the same name list, around 2500BC, Ilamites occupied the Mesopotamia and three governors of the Uon dynasty ruled over this region for 356 years. Around 2450 BC, a governor from Lagash spoke about his victory over Ilam. Ilamites ruled over Iran till 750 BC. Finally this dynasty was overthrown by Cyrus the same year. Iran during the first millennium BC (Medians) The comprehensive study of Iran's history, culture and geography at the time of Media can be considered as the most complicated part of Iran's history. Different linguists, ethnologists and theologians believe that although the great Median Empire did not last so long and was replaced with the Achaemenians, a very important fact is that, they were but the continuation of Medians. The same tribes and people continued the past trends with more vigor and dynamism. They gave credit to this dynasty and extended it into the greatest kingdom ever known. Achaemenians With the establishment of Acheamenian dynasty by Cyrus, the Great, from a famous family (near 550 BC), Iran achieved an important status in the world's history. Also, the empire is known as the founder of an excellent culture and civilization in Asia and the whole world. Cyrus, who put an end to the Median tribe rule over Iran, expanded his kingdom. The wars in the eastern regions, in the vicinity of Gorgan and the fields between the Caspian Sea and Aral Lake, led to his death. After him, Kamboujieh, Darius I, King Khashayar, Darius II and Ardeshir II ruled over Iran. Seleucid Eleven years after the death of Alexander, the Babylonia province was captured by Seleucus, a Macedonian commander, whose father, Antiokus, was also one of the commanders of Philips, Alexander's father (312 BC). All these eleven years and even some years late were passed in battles over succession among Alexander's commanders. Then he annexed Ilam province (Khuzestan and a part of today's Lurestan) and Medes (except Azarbaijan) to his kingdom. So an autonomous government was established after his own name which was called Seleucid (in Persian Soluki) dynasty. Later, his coronation became a historical reference point for the calendar of this dynasty. The downfall of Seleucid was in 64 BC. Arsacid The reign of Seleucid didn't last long (despite their militaristic violence) and after 65 years, the dynasty collapsed. Even at the peak of their military strength, simultaneous with the years when the Greek immigrants of Bacteria province (Bakhtar, Balkh) under the leadership of Diodotus, declared their independence (near 250 BC), an autonomous Iranian state was established in the Part province (Partia, Porsooh). This government was called after the name of its founder, Arshkan (Ashkan, Arsacid). Later, after the downfall of Seleucid, this government was converted to a great kingdom which was the sixth great kingdom on the earth. For some centuries, this government was considered a rival to the Roman Empire. Sasanian Dynasty The rule of Sasanian, after the downfall of Parthian (Arsacid), lasted for four centuries. There's a controversy between researchers (about 3 years) on the beginning of the reign of Ardashir I, the first king of Sasanian Dynasty. During the 400 years of their reign, the Sasanian government was one of the two great governments of the day (West Asia).The borders of the region under their reign stretched to Peshawar and the Sind River valley in the east and Kashmar in the northeast. In the north, the borders reached Cacasus Mountains and Darband on the shores of the Caspian Sea and sometime to the Black Sea. In the west, the Euphrates River was the border of Iran and Rome and also its successor state, Eastern Rome with Byzantine of course. Sometimes the border went beyond the Euphrates River. However apart from expansions and shrinkages, Euphrates could be considered the natural border between the two states of Byzantine and Sasanian. During this period, medicine and astronomy made huge progress and music developed quite well. There was also some progress in other fields of art. However, the Sasanian state is one of the important phenomena of the world which is acknowledged by almost all historians. Iran and the Advent of Islam After the migration of Hazrat Mohammad (P.B.U.H) from Mecca to Medina and when most of the tribes of Arabia embraced Islam, he decided to invite the people of neighboring countries to Islam as well. In order to accomplish this task, he wrote some letters to kings of those countries including Khosrow Parviz of Persia. During those years, a number skirmishes broke out between Sasanian and Muslims and finally considering the status which Islam had gained among the Iranians, Islam could easily enter Iran without any serious resistance. The Iranians didn't become Muslim by force, but when they found Islam compatible with their spirits, they embraced it with consent5, i.e., Islam didn't impose itself on Iranians. After the Sassanian, the Taherian, Saffarian, Al-Bouyeh, Abbassid, Samanian, Ghaznavian, Alavian, Al Ziyar, Siljukid, Atabakan and Kharazmshahian ruled over Iran. In 654 A.H., Mongols attacked Iran and took the helm after devastating Iran. Next to the Mongols, in 771 A.H. Teymurian came to power and ruled over Iran until 903 A.H. Safavid Dynasty The establishment of the Safavid Dynasty in the early 10th century A.H. (early 16th century AD) is one of the important events of Iran. It should be considered the beginning of a new age in Iran's political landscape and religion and for the first Shiism was announced as the state religion which also paved the way for a centralized administrative structure. The establishment of the Safavid Dynasty paved the way for promotion of cultural, artistic and architectural activities. Therefore, a number of new artistic and architectural monuments were created. Political contacts with European and neighboring countries caused led to commercial development. As a result the domestic economy dramatically flourished, boosting production, particularly the trade of silk which led to the establishment of large textile centers. In 907 A.H., Shah Isma'il I (Son of Sheikh Heidar Safavi) after defeating Farrokh Yasar (king of Shervan) and Alvand Beig, Aq-Qoyunlu conquered Tabriz (the capital of Aq-Qoyunlu government) with the help of Ghezelbash from Ardebil's Khangah. It was in this city that the Safavi government was established and the twelver-Shiism was announced the official religion of Iran. Sultan Hussein was the last king of the Safavid Dynasty (before its final fall by Nadir Shah Afshar). He reigned after Shah Suleyman from 1106 to 1135 A.H. The reasons that had already set the stage for the downfall of the Safavid, surfaced during the period of Sultan Hussein. Some of these reasons were: increase in taxes, oppression of autocratic governors, severe pressure on the minority religious sects, infiltration of irresponsible and harem eunuchs into government, expulsion of experts and efficient officials from the administrative and military systems, and the king's lack of willpower in facing the events. The uprising of Ghalzaei tribe in Kandahar in 1113 A.H. which was provoked by India and the revolt of Harat's Abdalis in 1118 A.H. were the preludes to the downfall of the government. The king and his attendants couldn't prevent the downfall during 17 years. Afshar Dynasty Nadir Gholi, son of Imam Gholi, was from the "Gharokhlu" tribe which was a branch of Afshar tribe. From the early days of the Safavid rule, the mentioned tribe was moved to and settled in Abivard and Dareh Gaz in order to prevent the attack of Uzbeks and Turkomens. The downfall of Isfahan in 1135 A.H. was a good pretext for domestic rebels and foreign claimants to create riot. Nadir who was also the head of a group in support of the people of Abivard, first served the Khan of the region and after two successive marriages with the Khan's two daughters, became the heir to the throne of local government. In 1139 A.H. the wandering Safavi prince (Tahmasb Mirza) who was looking for some devoted companions, joined him and established the Afsharian dynasty. Finally Nader was killed by a group of commanders. Zand Dynasty Karim Khan Zand is the founder of Zand dynasty. He owed his conquest first and foremost to the riot and revolts that ensued Nadir's assassination. These revolts had their roots in the previous 70 or 80 years. For about three years after Nadir, Karim Khan didn't have any fame in his tribe which was moved to Khorasan in 1144 A.H. In the light of his insight, good intention and sincerity, he overcame the opponents. From 1179 A.H. he ruled over Iran independently. The last 14 years of his life were important for Iranians, because he could bring security in all internal regions and Persian Gulf in any confrontation. Generally speaking, the 50-year period of Zand dynasty (1160-1209 A.H.) was the era of domestic challenges and the foreign opponents did not dare attack Iran. The country's frontiers were under the control of Iranian clans. Qajar Dynasty By forming a well-organized army (after the death of Karim Khan) the Ghovanlu tribe under the leadership of Agha Mohammad Khan defeated the opponents and established the Qajar dynasty. Tehran was selected as the capital of the dynasty. During the rule of Qajarid the tribal rule cam to an end in Iran, but in its foreign relations, Iran faced the influence of Czarist Russia and Great Britain. For about a century this influence changed the situation in all fields and caused many drawbacks. The death of Agha Mohammad Khan resulted in some domestic skirmishes while the reign of Fath Ali Shah led to the domination of foreigners. During Fath Ali Shah's reign, the influence of foreign powers such as Russia and Britain increased so dramatically that the ambassadors of the two countries practically played the main role in the process of decision making in Iran. This influence and direct interference of the said powers reached its peak during the reign of Ahmad Shah, the last kind of the Qajar dynasty, undermining the sovereignty of the central government causing public protests and finally leading to his dethronement. Pahlavi Dynasty Ten days after the dethronement of Ahmad Shah, the British ambassador to Tehran visited Reza Khan and in a formal letter from the British government recognized his regime. The next day the Soviet ambassador to Tehran too formally announced the Soviet recognition of Reza Khan's government. In December 1925 the National Consultative Assembly was convened with members three times the members of the parliament, while Mirza Sadeq Khan Mostashar-u-dolah was the speaker. The assembly elected Reza Khan as the king and made the monarchy hereditary in his dynasty. The new king coronation took place in April 1926. In 1941, with the forced abdication of Reza Khan, his son Mohammad Reza, the 20 year-old crown prince, ascended the throne. Backgrounds of Islamic Revolution in Iran and its victory The democratic process and people's protests against the suppressive and unfair behavior of Iran's rulers began from the Qajar dynasty. The constitutional movement in 1907 and the nationalization of oil industry in 1952 are the most important manifestations of people's protests against foreign interference in their national affairs and despotic regimes of Qajar and Pahlavi kings. But the movements were suppressed or diverted from their direction for different reasons. But after Mohammad Reza Shah and the 1953 coup d'etat, that paved the way for dictatorship in its most destructive manner, the Iranians launched a movement under the leadership of Imam Khomeini6 and finally overthrew the monarchical system.. Under the circumstances, Imam Khomeini played a key role in exposing the real purposes of the regime and pointed to the great mission of clerics and theological schools. Open protests letters and telegram of clerics to Shah and Asadullah Alam were supported by people from different walks of life. Thus the struggle against the Local Councils was a valuable experience for Iranian nation because they released the characteristics of the person who deserved the leadership of Iranian nation. Despite the Shah's defeat in the Local Councils event, the US pressure for the intended reforms continued. In January 1963, the Shah announced his six-point reform plan and called for a referendum. Imam Khomeini invited the clerics of Qom to discuss the new development and sought a solution. Imam Khomeini called for boycotting the New Year celebrations (Nowruz) of 1963 to express their opposition to the regime's measures. The Imam termed the so-called White Revolution of the Shah the black revolution and disclosed his cooperation with the US and Israel. Since the Shah had assured Washington officials of people's readiness to welcome US-sponsored reforms, the White Revolution, clerics opposition cost him dearly. Imam Khomeini in his public meetings bravely blamed the Shah for the regime's crimes and disclosed the regime's relations with Israel. He also called for a public uprising. Imam Khomeini seized the opportunity of Muharram to encourage the people to revolt against the Shah's despotic regime. The regime transferred the Imam to Tehran and imprisoned him. In the morning of June 3, the news of the detention of the leader of Iran's revolution reached Tehran, Mashad, Shiraz and other cities where the situation became like that of Qom. In April 1963 without previous notice, the Imam was released and transferred to Qom. When the people learned about the release of Imam they held great celebrations in Feizieh School for several days. The first anniversary of June 3 uprising was held in 1963. Imam Khomeini and other religious authorities issued a joint statement and separate statements were issued by the theological schools announcing national mourning on the event. Imam Khomeini issued a revolutionary statement in November 1343 in which he blamed the US and Israel for Shah's crimes against the Iranian nation. Imam's disclosure of the approval of the Capitulation bill caused another revolution in November 1963. In the dawn of November 4, 1963 the armed commandos from Tehran surrounded Imam's house in Qom. The Imam was arrested and the security forces transferred him directly to Tehran's Mehrabad Airport from where he was taken to Ankara under security measures by a military plane that had previously been prepared. After a month the Imam and his son, Ayatollah Haj Agha Mustafa were transferred from Turkey to the second exile in Iraq. After Imam Khomeini arrived in Iraq, by sending letters and messages to Iran he kept his relations with the fighters and asked them to follow up the objectives of June 3 uprising. During the exile period, in spite of the difficulties, he never gave up fighting and by his speeches and messages raised hopes in people's hearts. Ayatollah Haj Agha Moastafa Khomeini's martyrdom and the mourning ceremonies held in Iran to mark his martyrdom were the beginning of a fresh protest move by the theological school against the regime. The Imam termed the martyrdom of his son a blessing in disguise. The publication of an article in the Persian daily Itelaat in January 1978 led a public uprising. In the course of uprising a number of revolutionary seminarians were killed. In spite of massive killings, the Shah couldn't put off the flames of public uprising. After the victory of the Islamic Revolution, it was necessary to determine the new political system. Hence, a referendum was held on April 1, 1979 in which 98.2 percent of Iranians voted for the Islamic Republic. It was necessary to restore peace to the country to pave the way for reconstruction. Hence the constitution had to be written down. The representatives of the Constituent Assembly who were elected by the nation, studied the constitution of Islamic Republic and the nation voted for it in a referendum in October 1979. Next to the approval of the constitution, the institutions enshrined in it had to be practically established to create political institutionalization. This was the most important stage of stabilization of the Islamic Republic. In addition to some institutions such as president office, premiership and parliament, which are common in most countries, some new institutions were also established. They will be explained in detail in the following sections. |